In an interview with PAP, she explains how astronauts prepare for solar storms, why water tanks and clothing can become life-saving shields, and what scientists hope to learn before humans head to Mars.

Q: The radiation sensors you designed have flown on two Artemis missions. What is it like to send your "children" on a journey around the Moon?

Aleksandra Rutczyńska: I have already sent a lot of devices into space, but it is the manned missions that truly capture the imagination. I followed the Artemis 2 mission with bated breath, watched all the communications with the astronauts and looked for any of our four detectors in the images from the Orion capsule. This took place around Easter, so I had a rather unusual, cosmic Easter egg hunt.

Q: How did your radiation sensors perform during the Artemis 2 mission?

A.R.: That remains to be seen. Our radiation sensors were not connected to the on-board computer during the mission, so they did not provide real-time data. They are currently waiting for us at NASA. However, we do not expect any anomalies. These devices are very similar to those that flew on the Artemis 1 mission, and they performed perfectly there, providing a complete set of data.

When it comes to radiation, the Sun was quiet during the mission, although it is currently nearing its 11-year peak. We therefore expect standard radiation results for such a route: sensor results will likely show passages through the Van Allen belts, then the journey towards the Moon, and the moment when the capsule disappears behind it. Based on measurements, we can tell quite precisely where the sensor was on the flight path if something interesting was happening there in terms of radiation environment.

Q: Your detectors are called M-42. Is that a reference to Douglas Adams's The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy?

A.R.: Yes, it is a cool name. But there are more connotations associated with it. Since the experiment took place in the Orion capsule, it is also a reference to the M-42 Nebula in the Orion constellation. In addition, this was the fourth experiment in the Matryoshka series, involving two phantoms, so the name M-42 suited us for several reasons.

Q: What exactly did your work on the sensors involve?

A.R.: It is working at the intersection of electronics and embedded systems programming. The device consists of a microcontroller and various components. I need to ensure they work together. The second part of my job involves analysing the sensor data.

Q: Are there more space missions ahead?

A.R.: Official contracts have not been signed yet, but we plan to participate in the Artemis 3 and Artemis 4 missions. Our detectors also fly on commercial missions - we will be present on the Astrobotic lander bound for the Moon. We also have further experiments planned for the Space Station. The life of a space scientist goes from mission to mission.

Q: What makes cosmic radiation so dangerous?

A.R.: There are two main components of cosmic radiation. The first is the radiation that reaches us from distant galaxies, for example, from supernova explosions. The second component is directly related to solar activity. The threat depends on the direction of this stream. The problem with manned space missions is that the long-term health effects of radiation are not yet fully understood. However, we do know that radiation damages DNA and that extreme doses can cause radiation sickness.

Q: Has any astronaut ever suffered radiation sickness?

A.R.: No, but we had an interesting case in the 1970s between the Apollo 16 and Apollo 17 missions. There was a large solar flare. If the astronauts had been walking on the lunar surface at that moment, the health effects could have been disastrous. With such flares, without the shielding of the spacecraft, the magnetosphere, or the Earth's atmosphere, astronauts would absorb enormous amounts of energy.

A flight around the Moon, lasting about 10 days, delivers a dose comparable to a full-body CT scan. So not that much. However, if our goal is a permanent presence on the Moon and a journey to Mars, then these values begin to accumulate dramatically.

However, in all of human history, only about 700 people have been in space, and only twenty-something have been near the Moon. We do not have a huge database, which is why working on new sensors is so important - it is an opportunity to obtain better data.

Q: Why are new radiation sensors needed?

A.R.: We strive for miniaturization, reduced power consumption, and an increase in the energy range our detectors can detect. The more we know about radiation, the better we can protect ourselves from it. Each measurement point helps analyse the effects of this phenomenon. However, when it comes to the personal detectors used by astronauts, it is often passive technology, which has been used for years and works very well.

Q: How do those passive dosimeters work? Can they warn astronauts if radiation levels suddenly increase?

A.R.: No, passive detectors do not have batteries or a display. They measure the cumulative radiation dose from the entire mission and are read only upon return to the laboratory. Astronauts do not learn about threats from a dosimeter, but from Mission Control, which constantly monitors space weather. If a solar flare occurs, the crew is notified and proceeds to a shelter. Such a shelter is planned both on the Space Station and in the Orion capsule.

Q: How do you build a radiation shelter inside such a small spacecraft?

A.R.: In the event of a threat, a shelter is built during the mission using materials available on board the spacecraft. For example, water supplies, clothing, and equipment are used, arranged to create a protective barrier. Astronauts utilize what is already on board.

When planning a mission, we can therefore manage not only physical shields but also the orientation of the spacecraft to shield the astronauts within its structure. For example, during the Artemis 1 mission, the Orion capsule rotated 90 degrees at one point, reducing the radiation dose in some areas by as much as half.

Q: Artemis 1 also carried two mannequins, Helga and Zohar. What was their purpose?

A.R.: Helga and Zohar are twin mannequins made of a plastic material with a structure resembling human tissue. They were densely packed with dosimeters - several thousand radiation detectors were placed inside them. Zohar wore a radiation vest, while Helga flew without one. When the mannequins returned to Earth, we read the sensor data in the laboratory. The mannequins are now emptied of their dosimeters - part of this experiment is on display at NASA's Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, and the rest remains in our laboratories at the DLR in Cologne.

Interestingly, the mannequin experiments, known as "Matryoshkas", have been done for 20 years, but the Artemis 1 mission marked the first time that mannequins with a female figure and organ parameters were sent on a mission. The attitude towards women's participation in space missions is thankfully changing.

Q: What has working on these missions taught you?

A.R.: Space missions are not just about admiring beautiful views of Earth or meteor flashes. Astronauts in space are exposed to enormous risks, including those related to cosmic radiation. It is incredibly hard, dangerous work. And the systems we develop for them in space ultimately return to Earth and serve all of us, making everyday life easier.

Aleksandra Rutczyńska was a guest at the Perspektywy Women in Tech Summit 2026 in Warsaw (June 10-11).

PAP and PAP - Science in Poland were media sponsord of the event.

Interview by Ludwika Tomala (PAP)

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