The research by sociologist Paula Pustułka, PhD, from SWPS University, and published in the Women’s Studies International Forum, revealed three key patterns in the way mothers and daughters approach feminism.

In two of these patterns, views align: either both mothers and daughters share progressive feminist beliefs, or both are skeptical or outright hostile toward feminism. However, the most common pattern observed in the research was one in which the mother rejected feminism, while the daughter embraced it.

‘This is striking,’ Pustułka said. ‘We found no instances where the mother was a feminist and the daughter was not. But there were many cases where the daughter adopted feminist attitudes while her mother rejected them. This shows that, for many young women, antifeminism is something that is often transmitted from mothers, whereas feminism is acquired through external influences, such as education or social interactions.’

The research, based on interviews with 16 family dyads (adult daughters aged 26-40 and their mothers), found that the family home is more likely to be a place for transmitting antifeminist attitudes rather than feminist ones.

While some daughters' pro-equality views were shaped by their educational experiences—particularly during their time at university—many of the young women in the study who rejected feminism had internalized these views through their mothers' beliefs.

The Roots of Antifeminism in the Home

For many women in the study, antifeminism was linked to the way feminism is portrayed in public discourse. Participants often associated feminism with "gender ideology" and the advocacy for LGBTQ+ rights, framing it as radical, unnecessary, and disconnected from the lives of everyday women.

Mothers and daughters who rejected feminism typically emphasized traditional gender roles. For instance, Wiesława, a 57-year-old mother of six, described her view of a “natural” gender separation. ‘It is good for a child when a woman stays at home,’ she said, adding that some parental roles, such as caregiving, are inherently suited to women. Her daughter, though living in the city, shared her mother's views, rejecting gender equality in favor of a traditional wife-and-mother role.

This traditional mindset was especially common among women with deep roots in Catholicism or rural areas, where the division of labor between men and women is often seen as an unchangeable norm. But Pustułka also found rejection of feminism among urban, middle-class women. Jagoda, aged 65, a former feminist who once tried to balance her career with family life, now regrets her earlier choices. ‘For some time now, I have felt that maybe this is not the way, that I do not want to be independent all the time,’ she said, expressing a sentiment shared by her daughter, who also rejects feminism.

Quiet Feminism: A Subtle Shift in Attitudes

On the other hand, Pustułka also observed cases where mothers and daughters shared feminist views. In these families, the progressive attitudes of mothers helped foster a pro-equality worldview in their daughters. However, some of the young women interviewed, though supportive of feminism, hesitated to publicly embrace the label of "feminist."

‘Some of these women referred to themselves as 'quiet feminists,’' Pustułka noted. ‘They agreed with the principles of gender equality but preferred to avoid openly identifying as feminists, often due to the negative connotations associated with the term in Polish society.’

While some of the daughters did attribute their feminist attitudes to their mothers, others found inspiration from external sources, such as university experiences or social movements.

A Call for Further Research

Pustułka concludes that more research is needed to explore the interconnections between family influence and the broader societal factors that shape feminist attitudes in Poland.

‘Feminist attitudes among young Polish women are often the result of multiple influences, with family being just one part of the equation, she said. ‘But what is clear from this research is that for many young women, the family home—especially the relationship with their mothers—can be a place where antifeminist views are passed down, shaping attitudes that may persist for generations.’

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