The research examined whether striving for the highest possible level of happiness is a shared aspiration across cultures and what level of happiness people in different countries consider ideal. The findings were published in the journal Perspectives on Psychological Science.

The analysis drew on data from two large studies involving nearly 20,000 respondents in 61 countries. Participants completed questionnaires measuring their ideal level of life satisfaction.

The results show a clear pattern: the more affluent, individualised, well-educated, and democratic a society is, the higher the level of happiness its members regard as ideal. In Germany and Iceland, 86% and 84% of respondents, respectively, said ideal happiness meant being at least “very happy”. By contrast, in countries such as Bhutan, Ghana, Nigeria, Japan, and Pakistan, 70% or more respondents defined ideal happiness as below the “very happy” level.

“The pursuit of the greatest possible happiness is typical primarily for WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) societies. In other cultures, people also pursue happiness, and it is also a central theme in their lives, but it is not necessarily the pursuit of maximum happiness,” said Kryś.

The international research team included psychologists from SWPS University, the University of Warsaw, the University of Gdańsk, and the Warsaw School of Economics.

Kryś added that Western perspectives dominate social science research. “Social sciences and psychology are 95% based on Western research and theories, but once you step outside the Western world, happiness is no longer the Holy Grail of societies,” he said.

“Happiness is also important and fundamental in other regions, but other aspects that are essential for a good life gain more significance. In this Western way of thinking, there is simply less room for being guided by a sense of meaning, a sense of harmony, or, for some, a sense of spirituality,” he added.

In many societies, very high happiness is seen as unstable or even risky. Excessive life satisfaction may be associated with selfishness, a loss of vigilance, neglect of others, or tempting fate. In Buddhist traditions, for example, suffering is linked to desire, and the pursuit of personal happiness may be seen as harmful if it leads to ignoring others. In Japan, happiness can be experienced ambivalently, as it may disrupt social harmony or create anxiety about burdening others.

To explain why Western societies place such strong emphasis on maximizing happiness, the researchers looked beyond culture and philosophy to geography and history. They argue that the ideal of maximum happiness emerged in regions with exceptionally favourable living conditions.

Western Europe, considered the cradle of modern Western culture, has long benefited from a relatively mild climate and a lower risk of pathogens and natural disasters than many other regions. A key factor is the Gulf Stream, which makes north-western Europe significantly warmer and more humid than other areas at similar latitudes. As a result, winters are milder, growing seasons are longer, and basic survival has historically been less precarious.

According to the researchers, when meeting basic needs is no longer the dominant concern, societies have greater capacity to focus on subjective well-being and personal satisfaction. This allows people to devote resources not only to survival but also to enjoyment of life, making the ideal of maximizing happiness more attainable.

The authors argue that supporting well-being globally requires moving beyond Western definitions of happiness.

“It is worth noting that almost all cross-cultural studies on happiness show that, in fact, most people are already happy,” Kryś said. “If we feel that the Western pursuit of very high levels of happiness is preventing us from achieving peace of mind, I would suggest we stop fixating on maximum levels of happiness, make our aspirations for happiness realistic, and recognize that we already live well and happily. It is also worth starting to look beyond the Western world when reflecting on happiness; we can learn a lot about the good life from the rest of the world.”

PAP - Science in Poland, Ewelina Krajczyńska-Wujec (PAP)

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